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Homonyms, or multiple meaning words, are words that share the same spelling and the same pronunciation but have different meanings. For example, bear.

• A bear (the animal) can bear (tolerate) very cold temperatures.


• The driver turned left (opposite of right) and left (departed from) the main road.

Homophones, also known as sound-alike words, are words that are pronounced identically although they have different meanings and often have different spellings as well. These words are a very common source of confusion when writing. Common examples of sets of homophones include: to, too, and two; they're and their; bee and be; sun and son; which and witch; and plain and plane. VocabularySpellingCity is a particularly useful tool for learning to correctly use and spell the soundalike words.

Homographs are words that are spelled the same, but have different meanings and are often pronounced differently as well. Some examples of homographs are:

• bass as in fish vs bass as in music


• bow as in arrow vs bow as in bending or taking a bow at the end of a performance


• close as in next to vs close as in shut the door


• desert as in dry climate vs desert as in leaving alone.

Currently, VocabularySpellingCity cannot distinguish between homographs, as we are unable to have two pronounciations for the exact same word. We are looking for possibilities in the future.

Homophones

First let’s tackle homophones. The root –phone means “sound,” as it does in telephone and phonics. So homophones are words that sound the same, such as doe a deer, a female deer, and dough that you bake into bread.

Homographs

Next, let’s do homographs. The root -graph means “write,” just as it does in autograph and telegraph. So homographs are words that are written the same—that is, words that have the same spelling. For example, there’s the verb tears, as in “Squiggly tears the speeding ticket in two,” and the noun tears, meaning the salty drops of water that ran down your cheek when you watched the movie Inside Out. They’re homographs because they’re both spelled T-E-A-R-S.

Homonyms

Now we can bring in homonyms. The –onym root means “name.” You also hear it in anonymous, which literally means “without a name,” and of course, in the words synonym and antonym. Homonyms are words that have the same name; in other words, they sound the same and they’re spelled the same.

For example, pen meaning the writing instrument, and pen meaning an enclosure for an animal, are homonyms. They have the same pronunciation, “pen,” and they’re both spelled P-E-N. To put it another way, homonyms are both homophones and homographs! You can even illustrate this with a cute little Venn diagram of two overlapping circles. One circle contains homophones; the other circle contains homographs; and the football in the middle contains homonyms.

So homophones sound the same; homographs are spelled the same; and homonyms do both. That’s all you need to know.
At this point, if you already knew the difference between the three words, you might be saying, “Now hold on just one minute! Homographs are words that are spelled the same, and don’t sound the same! Homophones are words that sound the same, but aren’t spelled the same!”

This is where my fingers and thumbs analogy comes in. Sure, when somebody says, “Ow! I cut my finger!” you probably figure they cut their pointer, tall man, ring finger, or pinky. That’s because if they’d cut their thumb, they’d probably have been more specific and said, “Ow! I cut my thumb!”

Even so, you agree that a thumb is a finger—a special finger, but still a finger. In the same way, it makes more sense to say that pen and pen are special homophones than to say they’re not homophones. And by the same reasoning, it’s simpler to think of pen and pen as special homographs than say they’re not homographs.

Of course, if you really want to, you can write the definitions of homophone, homonym, and homograph so that there’s no overlap, but I suspect that definitions like that are part of the reason for people’s confusion.


references :
https://www.spellingcity.com/homophones-and-homonyms.html
https://www.vocabulary.com/articles/chooseyourwords/homonym-homophone-homograph/
http://www.businessinsider.com/the-difference-between-homophones-homonyms-and-homographs-2015-9?IR=T&r=US&IR=T

Examples

Man

1. The human species (i.e., man vs. animal)
2. Males of the human species (i.e., man vs. woman)
3. Adult males of the human species (i.e., man vs. boy)

This example shows the specific polysemy where the same word is used at different levels of a taxonomy. Example 1 contains 2, and 2 contains 3.

Mole

1. a small burrowing mammal
2. consequently, there are several different entities called moles (see the Mole disambiguation page). Although these refer to different things, their names derive from 1. :e.g. A Mole burrows for information hoping to go undetected.

Bank

1. a financial institution
2. the building where a financial institution offers services
3. a synonym for 'rely upon' (e.g. "I'm your friend, you can bank on me"). It is different, but related, as it derives from the theme of security initiated by 1.

However: a river bank is a homonym to 1 and 2, as they do not share etymologies. It is a completely different meaning.^[15] River bed, though, is polysemous with the beds on which people sleep.

Book

1. a bound collection of pages
2. a text reproduced and distributed (thus, someone who has read the same text on a computer has read the same book as someone who had the actual paper volume)
3. to make an action or event a matter of record (e.g. "Unable to book a hotel room, a man sneaked into a nearby private residence where police arrested him and later booked him for unlawful entry.")

Newspaper

1. a company that publishes written news.
2. a single physical item published by the company.
3. the newspaper as an edited work in a specific format (e.g. "They changed the layout of the newspaper's front page").

The different meanings can be combined in a single sentence, e.g. "John used to work for the newspaper that you are reading."

Milk

The verb milk (e.g. "he's milking it for all he can get") derives from the process of obtaining milk.

Wood

1. a piece of a tree
2. a geographical area with many trees

Crane

1. a bird
2. a type of construction equipment
3. to strain out one's neck

                    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysemy

Hyperbole Definition

Hyperbole, derived from a Greek word meaning “over-casting” is a figure of speech, which involves an exaggeration of ideas for the sake of emphasis.
 It is a device that we employ in our day-to-day speech. For instance, when you meet a friend after a long time, you say, “Ages have passed since I last saw you”.

You may not have met him for three or four hours or a day, but the use of the word “ages” exaggerates this statement to add emphasis to your wait.  Therefore, a hyperbole is an unreal exaggeration to emphasize the real situation. Some other common Hyperbole examples are given below.

Common Examples of Hyperbole

• My grandmother is as old as the hills.
• Your suitcase weighs a ton!
• She is as heavy as an elephant!
• I am dying of shame.
• I am trying to solve a million issues these days.

It is important not to confuse hyperbole with simile and metaphor. It does make a comparison but unlike simile and metaphor, hyperbole has a humorous effect created by an overstatement.


 

Hyperbole Examples from Literature

Example #

In American folk lore, Paul Bunyan’s stories are full of hyperboles. In one instance, he exaggerates winter by saying:
“Well now, one winter it was so cold that all the geese flew backward and all the fish moved south and even the snow turned blue. Late at night, it got so frigid that all spoken words froze solid afore they could be heard. People had to wait until sunup to find out what folks were talking about the night before.”
Freezing of the spoken words at night in winter and then warming up of the words in the warmth of the sun during the day are examples of hyperbole that have been effectively used by Paul Bunyan in this short excerpt.





references :
http://literarydevices.net/hyperbole/
https://www.google.com/search?q=hyperbole&client=firefox-beta&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&channel=fflb&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjuqaPDhurMAhXJn5QKHVFlCxMQsAQIQw&biw=1366&bih=631#imgrc=jaQSRHaJHd31tM%3A

 

metonymy and synecdoche 





Metonymy is often confused with another figure of speech called synecdoche. They resemble each other but are not the same. Synecdoche refers to a thing by the name of one of its parts. For example, calling a car “a wheel” is a synecdoche. A part of a car i.e. “a wheel” stands for the whole car. In a metonymy, on the other hand, the word we use to describe another thing is closely linked to that particular thing, but is not a part of it. For example, “Crown” which means power or authority is a metonymy.

Metonymy is different from a metaphor. A metaphor draws resemblance between two different things as in “You are sunlight and I moon” – Sun And Moon from Miss Saigon. Sunlight (and moon) and human are two different things without any association but it attempts to describe one thing in terms of another based on a supposed similarity. Metonymy, however, develops relation on the grounds of close associations as in “The White House is concerned about terrorism.” The White House here represents the people who work in it.

Examples of Metonymy in Everyday Life

We use metonymy frequently in our everyday life. For a better understanding, let us observe a few metonymy examples:

• England decides to keep check on immigration. (England refers to the government.)
• The pen is mightier than the sword. (Pen refers to written words and sword to military force.)
• The Oval Office was busy in work. (“The Oval Office” is a metonymy as it stands for people at work in the office.)
• Let me give you a hand. (Hand means help.)

Metonymy Examples from Literature

Example #1

The given lines are from Shakespeare’s “Julies Caesar” Act I.

“Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.”

Mark Anthony uses “ears” to say that he wants the people present there to listen to him attentively. It is a metonymy because the word “ears” replaces the concept of attention.

 






references :
http://literarydevices.net/metonymy/
http://study.com/academy/lesson/synecdoche-vs-metonymy-definitions-examples.html
https://www.google.com/search?q=picture+of+metonymy&client=firefox-beta&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&channel=fflb&tbm=isch&imgil=PasLWW9wI9p7WM%253A%253BoQrXCzHyTUULtM%253Bhttp%25253A%25252F%25252Fscalar.usc.edu%25252Fstudents%25252Fmachine-dreams%25252Fmetonymy-2&source=iu&pf=m&fir=PasLWW9wI9p7WM%253A%252CoQrXCzHyTUULtM%252C_&usg=__BWs3ssrM9APuGf90uwUpPLUJimo%3D&biw=1366&bih=631&ved=0ahUKEwi3n7SJ_ujMAhUTSo8KHWjfDP4QyjcINQ&ei=aS8_V_fGBJOUvQTovrPwDw#imgrc=5OhGUMN-E15zmM%3A

 

History of Clipping

references :

https://www.google.com/search?q=clipping+in+morphology&client=firefox-beta&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&channel=np&biw=1366&bih=631&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjQvqSpv-jMAhUGF5QKHYR8DvYQ_AUIBigB#imgrc=Bx_90Y_FCmV-bM%3A

COMPOUNDING

The combination of lexical categories called compounding. It consists of nouns, adjectives, verbs, or prepositions. The morpheme which determines the category of the entire word is called the head.
Examples:
a)      Noun compounds

• greenhouse
• bluebird
• fire engine
• oil well

b)      Verb compounds

• overlook
• underestimate
• dropkick
• breakdance

c)      Adjective compounds

• red hot
• deep blue
• sky blue
• nation wide

Compound can be combined with other lexical categories to create larger compounds. The word formation processes responsible for derivation and compounding can interact with each other.

• dog food box
• baseball bat rack

Structure above is compounds formed from smaller compounds.
Structure below is the combining of a simple word (debate) with the derived word abortion.

• abortion debate

Properties of Compound
Compounds are not consistent since they are written as single words, or with an intervening hyphen, or as separate word sometimes. There is an important generalization to be made in terms of pronunciation.
Compounds (1^st element generally stressed) versus non-compounds (2^nd element generally stressed):

COMPOUND	WORD	NON-COMPOUND	EXPRESSION
Greénhoùse	‘an indoor garden’	Greèn hoúse	‘a house painted green
Bláckboàrd	‘a chalkboard	Blàck boárd	‘a board which is black’
Wét suìt	‘a diver’s costume’	Wèt suít	‘a suit that is wet’

Tense and plural markers can typically not be attached to the first element though they can be added to the compound as a whole.

• Tense on the 1^st element in a compound         à [dropped kick]

Tense on the entire compound                        à [drop kick]ed

• Plural marking on the 1^st element in a compound is usually disallowed

à [foxes hunter] ; [roads map]
(there a few exceptions such as passers-by, parks supervisor and mothers-in-law)
Plural on the entire compound is the norm à [fox hunter]s ; [road map]s
An A-N compound can be identified with the help of a different test. As illustrated below, the A in a compound cannot be preceded by a word such as very.

• Compound with very à We live to a very [greenhouse].
• Very with adjective that isn’t part of compound à We live next to a very green fence.

Types of compounds
Compounds are used to express a wide range of semantic relationships in English.
Some N-N compounds called endocentric:

EXAMPLE	MEANING
Steamboat	‘a boat powered by steam’
Air hose	‘a hose that carries air’
Fire truck	‘a vehicle used to put out fires’
Fire drill	‘a practice in the event of a fire’
Bath towel	‘a towel used after bathing’

In most cases, component of compound identifies the general class to which the meaning of the entire word belongs. In a smaller number of cases, the meaning of the compound does not follow from the meanings of its parts in this way. Thus, examples below called exocentric,

• Greenbottle = a fly of the genus lucilia (not a type of bottle)
• Redneck = an ultra-conservative; white working-class person (not a type of neck)
• Sugar-daddy = a woman’s lover who is deemed to be both overgenerous and much too old for her (not a type of sugar-coated father)

Examples below are very striking differences between endocentric and exocentric compounds where the head of the compound has an irregular plural.

IN ENDOCENTRIC COMPOUNDS	IN EXOCENTRIC COMPOUNDS
Oak leaves	Maple leafs (Toronto’s NHL hockey team)
Wisdom teeth	Sabre tooths (extinct species of tiger)
Club feet	Bigfoots (members of an extinct tiger species)
policemen	Walkmans (a type of portable audio cassette player)

The exocentric compounds permit the plural suffix –s for words such as leaf, tooth, foot, and man, though these forms require an irregular plural when used elsewhere in the language.
Compounds in other languages
The practice of combining lexical categories to build a word is very widespread. With the exception of Tagalog, in which compounds are left-headed, these languages all have compounds in which the rightmost element is the head. A special type of compounding process involves incorporation (combination of a word/a noun with a verb to form a compound verb).

EXERCISES

1)      Infix : an affix that is inserted inside the word
Example –>
The infix or is characteristic of hip-hop slang:

• hizouse for house
• shiznit for shit

Infixes also occur in some language games (ironic pseudo-sophistication):

• Sophistimacated
• Saxomaphone
• Edumacation

Chemical nomenclature includes the infixes:

• Picoline à pipecoline
• lutidine à lupetidine
• phenidine à phenetidine
• xanthoxylin à xanthoxyletin

A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language by Randolph Quirk:

• ungett-ABLE-at (something that one could not get at)
• passER=by (a person who was passing by)
• motherS-in-law (an alternative plural to “mother-in-laws).

2)      Reduplication: repeating the entire word (full reduplication) or partial reduplication
Example –>

1. It’s a big … big … dog.
2. Bling-bling
3. The town is very very crowded.
4. Teeny weeny
5. Okey-dokey
6. Zig-zag
7. Wee-wee
8. Hocus-pocus
9. Itsy-bitsy
10. Walkie-talkie

3)      Proclitic: is a clitic that precedes the word to which it’s phonologically joined. (lean forward)
Example –>

1. The English article the, when unstressed and with a reduced vowel, is a proclitic (the house)
2. “They love to dance” à “They love t’dance”
3. d’habitude
4. an apple

4)      Internal change: is process that substitutes one none morphemic segment for another.
Examples –>

1. Sing – sang
2. Drive – drove
3. Foot – feet
4. Mouse – mice
5. Tooth – teeth
6. Geese – goose
7. Man – men
8. Break – broke – broken
9. Sing – sang – sung
10. Live – life
11. Breath – breathe
12. Prove – proof

5)      Suppletion : a morphological process where a root morpheme is replacing by phonologically unrelated form.
Example –>

1. Go – went – gone
2. Is/are – was/were – been
3. Good – better – best
4. Bad – worse – worst
5. Bovine – cow

References :

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_%28linguistics%29
                    

words found using the letters in "Superfixes"

• perfuses
• prefixes
• superfix
• supersex

• expires
• express
• fissure
• fixures
• frisees
• fussier
• perfuse 

references :
 http://www.enchantedlearning.com/grammar/prefixsuffix/
http://grammar.about.com/od/il/g/infixterm.htm
https://www.google.com/search?q=confixes&client=firefox-beta&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&channel=fflb&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwivmYKv3cbMAhULwY4KHTmoAnoQsAQIUg&biw=1366&bih=631#imgrc=u6UEiAYHlJsssM%3A
http://www.wordfind.com/word/superfixes/
http://www.wordfind.com/word/superfixes/
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/superfix

Prefix

A prefix is a group of letters placed before the root of a word. For example, the word "unhappy" consists of the prefix "un-" [which means "not"] combined with the root (stem) word "happy"; the word "unhappy" means "not happy."

A Short List of Prefixes:

PREFIX	MEANING	EXAMPLES
de-	from, down, away reverse, opposite	decode, decrease
dis-	not, opposite, reverse, away	disagree, disappear
ex-	out of, away from, lacking, former	exhale, explosion
il-	not	illegal, illogical
im-	not, without	impossible, improper
in-	not, without	inaction, invisible
mis-	bad, wrong	mislead, misplace
non-	not	nonfiction, nonsense
pre-	before	prefix, prehistory
pro-	for, forward, before	proactive, profess, program
re-	again, back	react, reappear
un-	against, not, opposite	undo, unequal, unusual

Suffix

A suffix is a group of letters placed after the root of a word. For example, the word flavorless consists of the root word "flavor" combined with the suffix "-less" [which means "without"]; the word "flavorless" means "having no flavor."

A Short List of Suffixes:

SUFFIX	MEANING	EXAMPLES
-able	able to, having the quality of	comfortable, portable
-al	relating to	annual, comical
-er	comparative	bigger, stronger
-est	superlative	strongest, tiniest
-ful	full of	beautiful, grateful
-ible	forming an adjective	reversible, terrible
-ily	forming an adverb	eerily, happily, lazily
-ing	denoting an action, a material, or a gerund	acting, showing
-less	without, not affected by	friendless, tireless
-ly	forming an adjective	clearly, hourly
-ness	denoting a state or condition	kindness, wilderness
-y	full of, denoting a condition, or a diminutive	glory, messy, victory,

Definition

Collocation Examples